Knowledge management collaboration model for the city of jeddah. Advanced architecture theory and criticism lecture Working Drawings lecture Related Books Free with a 30 day trial from Scribd. Related Audiobooks Free with a 30 day trial from Scribd. Elizabeth Howell. Intelligent Building Management Systems 1. Management of Intelligent Buildings Dr. Table of Contents 1. Protocols of Intelligent Buildings 3. Issues Related to Intelligent Buildings 3. Architectural Science Review, 59 5 , Target BMS system centrally monitors and controls the building technical systems and services.
Management of intelligent Buildings Dr. It is about features and benefits of intelligence rather than building typology. Thanks for attention Dr. Kritika Shukla Jan. Jennifer Jackson Dec. Hendra Gunawan May. VigneshK Apr. More commonly, there are bit microprocessor chips, bit and bit chips being used in PCs. Also common now are bit and bit outstations.
A machine that can deal with more bits in a unit, or with a longer word length, is more powerful and has more capabilities. To keep down costs, most outstations do not have extensive memories, although they vary significantly between manufacturers. Consequently, there is a limit to the data that can be stored in an outstation, just as there is a limit to the number of inputs and outputs and programming that it can handle.
Once the memory is full, unless the data was downloaded to the central station, the former readings would be overwritten by the later readings. Care must therefore be exercised with data stored in an outstation. Even if some sensors or actuators operate using digital signals, the signals generally cannot match the microprocessor buses directly. Therefore, an interface is usually required for a microcomputer to communicate with external devices. In BAS outsta- tions, the input and output units provide the communication interface with building services systems.
This is an analogue or continuous signal which needs to be converted into bits and bytes to form a digital signal for the CPU to be able to process. Measured data is generated con- tinuously by individual sensors. However, an outstation can only read the measurements at regular intervals, even though the interval can be rather short. A measured variable is reconstructed in the system from the meas- urement of these samples.
The frequency of sampling must reflect the way in which measured values themselves change with time. A rapidly changing measured value will have to be sampled much more frequently than a slowly changing value, in order to reconstruct its true nature from the samples.
However, it is important to ask: what sampling speed is required for the average building services plant to be adequately controlled? In practice, sampling frequencies at least ten times the theoretical limit are often used. In practice, to see how the valve or the rest of the plant is operating, selected sampled values from the input sensors can be stored or logged for later evaluation, most likely at the central station.
A graph may be con- structed by the central station software from this logged data. The outstation will have limited memory, and the sampling rate for this logged data will have to be carefully selected. When the memory becomes full, the later data will simply be allocated to memory space occupied by older data, and the older data will be overwritten and lost.
However, the data will not be lost if it is regularly sent, or downloaded, to the central station for storage, where the storage is much larger. The frequency of downloading depends on the logging frequency. Unlike analogue values, digital values are discrete rather than continuous. Hence conversion requires that a search is made for the closest possible correspondence between the analogue value and its digital equivalent. A voltage proportional to the discrete value of each bit of the digital representation of the signal is generated and several voltages are added to obtain the analogue equivalent of the binary number.
The scaling factor, F, can be found by setting the maximum value of the analogue signal equal to the maximum of the digital representation. The maximum error in the digital equivalent is half the value of the least significant bit, taken as a fraction of the maximum of the measure- ment range. For example, if a resolution better than 0. Solution Resolution may be defined as the change in the input signal for the digital output to change by the least significant bit the last bit on the right of a binary number.
This can be done simply by sending out a pulse. To move a valve by a certain amount a number of pulses will need to be sent to move the valve for a certain time.
This is valve movement on an incremental basis. This approach used to be the most popular method for moving valves in the past.
However, the most common approach to conduct such modulating control actions, nowadays, is to use an analogue signal. If a valve needs to be moved to a definite position, a corresponding analogue signal is generated to move it to the defined position. If large voltage or power, AC and DC, is needed to drive a device, a voltage or power amplifier is needed. Opto-isolation transferring a signal via a short optical path, thus keeping the elements of the circuit electri- cally isolated is often included in the output unit to protect the low-voltage microprocessor signal circuitry from any larger voltages.
This prevents dam- age caused by the powerful driving circuits. An instruction consisting of sequential executions for the processor is represented by a unique set of binary characters e. A program might be prepared directly by the programmer writing instructions in this form, which is called machine language.
But it is very difficult for people to use such language and therefore rare for programming to be carried out at this level today, although the processor can only recognize the instructions at this level.
Compared to machine language, people find assembler language more understandable, with each instruction being typed as a set of alphabetic characters known as a mnemonics. This enables the programmer to type the program and to understand the instructions typed.
The mnemonics have to be translated into machine language which the processor can understand. Each instruction at this level may require execution of several assembly-level instructions. High-level language programs must be compiled into assembler codes before being translated into machine codes to be run by the processor.
Examples of high-level languages are Fortran, Basic and C C is also known as a middle- level language. Each single assembly-level instruction is implemented in a sequence of micro-operations or steps. In its turn, each micro-operation takes place typi- cally in three stages, each initiated by a clock pulse: 1 The control unit sets up the control lines for the micro-operation.
Each instruction in a high-level language does something which is much more easily under- stood by the ordinary person but cannot be understood by the processor directly. Therefore, a program written in a high-level language has to be compiled. The process of compilation is carried out by the processor, using a special program of assembly-level instructions, called a compiler. Execution of the compiler program, which treats the high-level instructions as data, translates source code into assembly instructions or object code.
The object code is in mnemonic form and must be translated into machine code before it can be executed. This translation process, like compilation, is car- ried out by another special machine-level program known as an assembler.
Compilers and assemblers are special programs which generate assembly code the compiler and then machine code the assembler for execution by a particular processor. This set is automatically loaded into memory and each instruction can be invoked by an operator typing the appropriate mnemonic code together with any necessary data.
For a highly specialised area of operation, such as the programming of BAS control stations, these specialised but powerful instructions make it much easier for the user to configure his or her own system compared with the case if he or she had to write instructions in a generalised high-level language.
A modern BAS is usually provided with some person—machine interface. One function of the interface is to provide the services of compiling and assembling.
The interface allows the programmer to write the BAS appli- cation software in a general high-level language or even by simpler means specially designed. The BAS programming language and programming envi- ronment will be discussed further in Chapter 3.
Sophistication in the computing and software functions cannot compensate for inaccurate infor- mation provided by poor-quality or inappropriately mounted sensors. The types of sensor available for use in building control systems are reviewed and guidance on selection and installation is given below. In practice, the functions of the transducer and transmitter are often com- bined.
In some systems, the sensing element may be connected directly to the controller, e. The various combinations are categorised as follows. The sensors can be mechanical devices, where a physical movement of the sensing element causes switch contacts to open or close. Typical devices are thermostats, pressure switches and motion detec- tors. The output may be connected to a digital input of a controller for status reporting or software interlock purposes.
Analogue sensors convert the value of the measured variable into an elec- trical signal which is input to other devices for measurement and control purposes. All signal conditioning is carried out in the controller to which it is connected. Examples include resistance-type temperature sensors. No power supplies are required and the sensor is connected via field wiring directly to an analogue input on a controller.
One such standard electrical signal form is a 4—20 mA signal which requires only a two-wire connection and is commonly used in process-control appli- cations. Other forms of signals are voltage-free contact, which is used for status indication, and pulse, which is used for energy and flow measurement. Recent intelligent sensors contain a microprocessor which converts the measured value or status of the measured variable into a digitally encoded signal for direct communication over a network for onward transmission to other intelligent devices for control and measurement purposes.
In addition, an intelligent sensor may carry out additional data processing before trans- mitting the value, such as checking upper and lower bounds, calibration and compensation functions, and calculating derived values, e.
Sensor problems are the most frequent cause of control system malfunctions. A poor-quality sensor may suffer from drift or early failure, resulting in poor control and high maintenance costs. Speed of response: Sensors need to respond sufficiently fast to changes in the measured variable so that stable and accurate control can be maintained. The speed of response is characterised by the time constant T, which is the indication of the time taken for the signal output to follow the change of the measured variable from one level to another level.
The time constant of a sensor in practice includes the effects of its housing, the manner of mount- ing and the nature of the medium being measured. There may be additional delays introduced by the measurement system. For instance, the scanning rate of the controller limits the speed of response of the system to a change in the measured variable.
Increasing the relative speed of the fluid flowing past the sensor reduces the time constant. The time constant of the sensor should be considered in relation to the rest of the controlled system. Too low a time constant may give problems if short-term fluctuations in the measured variable give rise to unwanted con- trol action. This may be dealt with by the controller software, typically by incorporating an averaging function to extend the time constant. Too high a time constant may mean that the control system will respond too slowly to changes in the controlled variable.
This is difficult for the controller software to compensate for. The actuator may be fully modulating, where the position of the actuator is proportional to the control signal, or tristate, where the motor may be driven in either direction or stopped. Most actuators exhibit some degree of hysteresis, and the relation between control signal and actuator position depends on the direction of travel. Some actuators have the facility to provide a positional feedback signal, indicating the actual position of the actuator.
A mechanical linkage is required where it is desired to produce a rotary movement, e. The construction of the actuator and its method of connection to the valve or damper determine the direction of operation. Most pneumatic actuators are of the single-action type where the force on the diaphragm is opposed by a spring and the net force applied to the valve or damper is the differ- ence between them.
When the air pressure is removed the spring will return the valve to the selected extreme position and this may be used for fail-safe requirements. Pneumatic controllers provide reliable and fast operation and are still used in the HVAC industry.
For new installations dominated by direct digital control DDC , pneumatic systems are now installed only in special situ- ations. Where an existing pneumatic control system is being upgraded to DDC control, it is possible to retain pneumatic operation of the actuators by using hybrid electro-pneumatic transducers which use pneumatic power to provide the operating force, but whose position is controlled by a standard electronic signal.
References Borer, J. Butcher, K. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Dorf, R. It is used to refer to a wide range of computerized building control systems, from special-purpose controllers, to standalone remote stations, to larger systems including central computer stations and printers. As discussed earlier, BAS is one of the major intelligent building systems. A BAS comprises several subsystems which are connected in various ways to form a complete system.
The system has to be designed and engi- neered around the building itself to serve the services systems for which it is intended. Consequently, although the component parts used may be identical, no two systems are the same, unless they are applied to identical buildings with identical services and identical uses. Building services include HVAC systems, electrical systems, lighting sys- tems, fire systems and security systems and lift systems.
In industrial buildings they may also include the compressed air, steam and hot water systems used for the manufacturing process. A BAS may be used to monitor, control and manage all or just some of these services. There are good reasons and ulti- mate objectives in investing considerable sums of money in this way. These will vary, depending on the use of the building and the way the building is managed as well as the relationship between the value of the end product and the cost of operating the building.
It may also depend on the level of sophistication of the building services and their capital cost. The main typical benefits of having a BAS are discussed below. Failure of a component almost always results in a more expensive repair or replacement than would have been necessary with timely periodic attention. A BAS can make a significant contribution towards guaranteeing the operation by monitoring the system continuously and providing preventative maintenance.
Typical examples are equipment alerts when the predetermined operating time has been reached and in the case of equipment performance having been degraded to a certain level. A key func- tion of the BAS is to reduce the energy costs as much as practically possible.
The personnel used to maintain a building and its services is a significant portion of the overall operating costs nowadays due to increased remuneration costs and the increased sophistication of modern building services systems.
The contribution which a BAS provides to reducing manpower requirements can have a major effect on the annual cost of running a building. All types of buildings are candidates for some kind of energy-saving sys- tem.
EMCS or BEMS can be considered as the monitoring and control systems of building services systems that have significant contributions to the energy consumption of buildings. This means monitoring the conditions and services and maintaining them at the required level at all times. It also means being able to respond quickly and efficiently to changes in function patterns and use of space.
Detailed building-management functions are explained in Section 3. These include increased efficiency of personnel because of improved environmental conditions. This same communication system can be put to work sending alarms to an operator or security service in the event of smoke, fire, intrusion or situations that could possibly damage equipment. In addition, the BAS can also assist in other security measures.
For exam- ple, it can control access to itself by providing the building manager with the capability of granting different levels of access to various staff members. The BAS can help guard against intrusion in the building by utilizing card access, by controlling and monitoring specified areas of the building, and by assuring that the rounds of security patrollers match a predetermined schedule. With the widespread acceptance of DDC technology and use of microprocessor-based systems, building automation systems are replacing traditional controls and serving as the primary control systems.
Typical examples are chillers with a control panel and VAV terminals integrated with control components. Description of the overall development of BAS can cover its evolution since the early s.
Different technologies were introduced progressively at this time. The other technology introduced was signal amplification allowing an air signal to remain constant throughout its passage in one of the bundle of plastic tubes between the device and its controller. Consequently, the number of local control panels in a building could be reduced to a single centre. The introduction of electronic sensors and analogue control loops resulted in a hard-wired centralized control centre.
The problem faced at the early stage when using electrical technologies was excessive wiring for electrical signal transmission and therefore the high cost of installation.
The intro- duction of electromechanical multiplexing systems in the s reduced the number of wires, which resulted in reduction of installation costs and maintenance. The wires were reduced from hundreds to a few dozen wires per multiplexer. Commercial digital indication and logging systems were available on the central panels to permit the automatic recording of selected measurements.
A computer was connected to remote multiplexers and control panels, allowing all messages, sensors and devices to communicate through a coaxial cable or a two-wire digital transmission. The capability to address all points on the system provided operators with much useful information. The system Figure 3. The system of this generation was very expensive and not easy to use.
Due to the high cost of hardware, disc storage was rare. Programs were loaded manually through a tape reader and it was very hard to change the programs.
The BAS at this stage had low reliability as the entire system was based on a single central computer, and also involved excessive wiring. New application software packages were incorporated into their basic automation systems at an extra cost. During the s, the cost of hardware began to decrease dramatically. Computers became sufficiently practical to be used for common applications by non-specialist users.
Compared with the computer systems of earlier stages, systems became user-friendly. The use of keyboards and other new hardware provided users with a convenient primary human—machine inter- face HMI with the computers and building automation systems.
The data and information collected by the computer-based automation system could be printed on paper or displayed on a screen. Communication between the operator and the computer-based systems, as commonly exists today, was initiated.
However, the cost of special software increased because it could not be tailor-made in a simple way. In most cases, a specially trained programmer was the only person capable of doing this type of work. It significantly reduced the cabling work and allowed the building automation systems to have an extended number of monitoring and control points as required by the industrial activity in the building.
The lower cost of microprocessors and chips was the principal reason for the development of new technology in building automation and management. The introduction and wide acceptance of microprocessor-based distributed direct digital control is the main feature of the BAS of this generation. Microprocessor-based control stations integrated using a local area network LAN represented the typical system architecture of BAS at this stage, which is still in existence today.
The use of a hard disc for data storage and loading of application pro- grams provided great convenience in using and programming a BAS. A BAS normally had a central monitoring and management platform, running on a computer station, which was directly linked to remote control stations through a LAN.
An important feature of BAS at and after this stage was the use of standalone but integrated microprocessor control stations to control individual plants. This allowed the BAS to have independent and distributed but integrated intelligence. It meant most of the control decisions could be handled locally, resulting in a significant increase in the reliability of BAS, while management and optimization could be done collectively.
This problem was due to the fact that building automation systems did not comply with any standards commonly accepted. The popular use of the Internet has also had a great impact on standardizing technologies used in the BAS industry. The use of open and standard communication protocols allows BA systems from differ- ent manufacturers to be integrated without much difficulty or effort. The convergence network provides a unified network platform for all information in buildings.
BAS integration and information management can be achieved via the global Internet infrastructure. It is obvious that the evolution of BAS technology has followed the progress of computing technology due to the fact that BAS is actually the application of computing and IT technologies in building control and management. However, there was a clear boundary between the building automation systems and computing systems and networks in the first three stages, although the technologies originated from computing technologies.
The typical BAS of the fourth generation is compatible with computing net- works involving communication protocols and the means for information processing.
There is no boundary between BAS and an intranet any more. The systems can be integrated easily at very large scales in terms of number of systems and geometry. Field control networks typically connect the field control stations. The control stations are interfaced with the building services system via sensors, detectors and control actuation devices.
They typically have relatively larger memory space and higher computation power. Network control stations may or may not have inputs and outputs for interfacing with building services systems directly.
Field control networks typically have a lower communication speed. The management level network involves computers and network control stations. The devices at this level communicate based on Ethernet, usually nowadays providing a very high communication speed. Figure 3. A field control station typically involves a power con- nection, one or more network connections, connection port for programming such as connection to the serial port or USB port of a PC , input and output connections and backup battery.
Modern control stations are typically programmed with the support of user-friendly software tools, without the need for special programming facilities.
The programming software tools may be installed on the central computer stations where the programmers can configure control stations, program the control station and download the control software into the control stations from the central computer stations through the network.
Some of the pro- gramming tools used on the central computer stations are separate software packages and others are combined with the monitoring or management software tools. As the control stations governing different tasks integrated within the same BA network or BA system may be from different manufacturers, it is difficult to share the same programming tool on the central computer sta- tions.
Therefore, many control stations are provided with programming tools which typically run on PCs or notebook computers, linked to the control stations directly via the serial port, USB port, or the like, when programming them.
Programming a control station typically involves two main categories of tasks, configuring the control station, and developing and downloading the application program to the control station. Typical configuration tasks include: defining a station that runs as the server, defining channels and controllers, defining points and downloading the configuration database to the server.
In all cases, the programming tools should provide the functions to enable conversion of the programs made by the programmers into machine lan- guage, which the microprocessor can execute, and download them into the control stations. Building automation systems 37 In a typical graphic-format programming environment, a graphic pro- gramming interface tool is provided with the function boxes representing commonly used function routines to conduct specific calculations, such as PID function, differential and so on.
The control programs are made by sim- ply selecting the proper function boxes and linking them correctly according to the control logic. The control program makes use of a measurement simply by making a link to the input channel and sends out a control decision by simply linking the particular outlet of the program flow chart to the dedicated output channel on the programming interface. Programming the control stations in this environment requires no special training in the program- ming language.
The environment provides good flexibility for programming relatively complex control logic. However, it is not very efficient for making very complicated and sophisticated control programs. When the control stations are specialized for certain control functions or control of certain building services systems where the control logic can be summarized into some generic format and the program for individual applications can be customized by defining or changing the parameters in the generic form or template, a more simpler programming form, template or table format programming tool can be used.
Examples of control systems suitable to be programmed in this form are lighting control, security control and fire-detection systems. Limited programming freedom is provided when programming the control station in this environment.
Another means of programming is the text-format high-level-language programming. The languages might be similar to or even the same as one of the typical computer programming languages, such as Basic, C or Fortran. To suit the controller programming applications, some more rules might be introduced. Programming in this environment offers a great deal of freedom and flexibility to trained programmers.
The advantages of programming a controller in this format become obvious when the control logic is very sophisticated. Programmers need much more training before they can use a particular programming tool in this format.
Some systems share the same platform for both configuration and monitoring but others are designed on different platforms for monitoring and configura- tion. These days, many developers tend to separate two platforms due to the fact that the monitoring and management platform needs to manage a number of BAS subsystems from different manufacturers or using different standards.
Building processes can be monitored by just using the system dis- plays, which include alarm summary, point detail, trend and group displays. The typical display types are listed in Table 3. This information includes current values, scanning, history, etc. Trend Graphically displays changes in values, over time, of one or more variables.
Trends can be displayed in several ways, including curves graphs and bar charts. Group Displays various types of information about related points on a single display. Summary Displays information, such as alarms and events, in list form. You can display more details about an item in the list by clicking on it.
Status Displays detailed status information about system equipment, such as controllers and printers. To better understand the potential impacts of a BAS, it may be helpful to look at the needs of the building operation and management which a BAS addresses. The increasing acceptance of DDC changed the overall nature of building control systems used in practice from traditional analogue systems to digital systems.
Standalone control stations with DDC capacities have played significant roles in, and are increasingly important for, building automation. Local control functions are the basic control and automation that allow the building services systems to operate properly and provide adequate services. Local control functions can be further subdivided into two groups: sequencing control and process control. Sequencing control defines the order and conditions associated with bringing equipment online or moving it offline.
Examples of typical process control in buildings are temperature control, air and water flow rate control and static pressure control. The most common feedback control function adopted for building processes is proportional-integral-derivative PID control. The ways in which a BAS makes energy savings can be broadly grouped into two categories. The first is the savings which result through starting and stopping plants according to correct or optimal timing.
The second is the savings which result through running plants in energy-efficient conditions, typically by setting the set-points of the local process controls at correct or optimal levels. There is no better means of saving energy than that of turning off the energy-using equipment. Of course, you cannot turn off equipment that is needed constantly; we need to be able to turn off equipment without com- promising the quality of services or the indoor environment.
There are two approaches for starting and stopping equipment in an energy-efficient man- ner. The control settings of the local controllers might be optimal and energy efficient when certain subsystems or certain subsystem performance criteria are considered. Supervisory control, often named optimal control, seeks to minimize or maximize a real function by systematically choosing the values of variables within allowed ranges.
Compared to local control, supervisory control allows overall consideration of the system-level characteristics and interactions among all components and their associated variables.
Fire safety integrated into BAS provides a greater degree of personnel safety than using two inde- pendent systems. The BAS is able, automatically, to close fire doors, close some air dampers and open others, start some fans and stop others and pres- surize some parts of building with respect to others.
This can help prevent the spread of fire and perhaps, more importantly, reduce the spread of smoke. With the security system incorporated into the BAS, it almost always pro- vides greater security and therefore reduces risk.
Detection of someone trying to gain unauthorized entry is commonly by sensors on doors and windows. Access control differs from security monitoring since as the name suggests it is actually controlling who has access to a building or certain parts of a building. The basic data needed for the economic eval- uation is the cost of the BAS and the economic benefits that can be derived from the BAS.
It is likely that the initial cost of the BAS can be estimated more accurately than the annual savings from energy conservation and other improvements. Engineers can directly access actual plant operating conditions through BAS to monitor energy use and energy cost, to carry out energy audits or to check performance using computer simulation techniques.
With the support of BAS, a financial report can be produced with much less effort. Building automation systems 41 3. Effective maintenance is a very important task of modern automation systems. It can extend equipment life, improve equipment availability and keep equipment in proper condition, maximize equipment efficiency, and consequently reduce the complete life cycle cost of the equipment. Effective maintenance is particularly important for intelligent buildings as modern IBs have many complex facilities, most of which have a direct relationship with the services quality and play a very significant role in the life cycle of the buildings.
Smart maintenance is proposed based on the monitoring data, which pro- vides information on the equipment conditions. Conventional maintenance has been carried out according to schedule, which may be not suitable for all cases. Information-guided maintenance provides the service when it is needed, therefore saving manpower and reducing risk. FDD technologies can be applied online or offline. An offline process is carried out based on the recorded monitoring data. Online technology is more advanced, and is able to detect and analyze faults while the system is running and produce a report concurrently.
Automatic commissioning is a further development of FDD technology. Applying this technology it is pos- sible not only to detect faults online but also to reflect the analysis result s to the system simultaneously for better control or even data recovery and fault-tolerant control.
Intelligent buildings need facilities management to define requirements, justify investment and deliver benefits. At the same time, facilities managers need intelligent buildings to control building perform- ance, manage distributed services, adapt rapidly to changing requirements and provide crucial management information.
From this point of view, the basis of facilities management is to ensure all the service equipment works properly. But from the viewpoint of building services engineers, FM func- tions mostly refer to the use of building spaces and facilities, including the economic effectiveness and financial aspects. Intelligent buildings usually imply facilities management via building automation systems. Facility owners and managers require large amounts of data of various types for quality and efficient management.
Typically, this information, such as management data of utilities, energy, maintenance, space, tenant and environmental compliance, is available and recorded on various computers or control stations.
The tools in this category are usually integrated informa- tion management platforms, often web-based, providing computer-based space management, move management, work-order administration, vendor- interaction management and other FM functions.
They provide real-time collaboration platforms between facilities managers, maintenance staff, vendors, tenants and suppliers and others. In practice, most of the facilities management systems are still single information management systems. They cannot retrieve data from integrated building automation systems, which are a huge data source.
Future computer- aided facilities and maintenance management systems should provide more convenient and efficient management tools and exploit fully the advantage of integrated building automation systems in intelligent buildings.
References Honeywell Inc. Scheepers, H. This integration is of the digital stations or devices system integration and the integration of control and management functions function integration , while system integration provides a basis.
In a modern building, there might be a large number of digital stations or devices to be integrated. Local area networks are the primary choice for the integration of such large numbers of stations or devices in a building or within a short distance say, a few kilometres. LANs have been used for data transmission among the stations or devices in the networks. However, it is also normal nowadays to transmit digitalized image signals and voice signals over a LAN.
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